IIUM JOURNAL OF HUMAN SCIENCES

Abu Yusuf Yaʿqūb ibn Isḥāq Al-Kindī: The Philosophy of the Soul and Its Significance to Mental Health, Cognition, and Wellbeing

2025-09-19T10:29:51+08:00

Long before the emergence of modern psychology, Abu Yūsuf Yaʿqūb ibn Isḥāq al-Kindī has already developed a comprehensive philosophical account of the human soul that continues to offer valuable insights into mental health, cognition, and well-being. As the earliest philosopher of the Islamic tradition, al-Kindī reinterpreted Greek metaphysics and psychology through an Islamic monotheistic framework, laying intellectual foundations that shaped later falsafa and informed early conceptions of the self. This study revisits al-Kindī’s thought to examine its relevance for contemporary psychological discourse. Employing a conceptual, interpretive, and historical-philosophical methodology, the analysis draws on close readings of al-Kindī’s primary texts and a thematic synthesis of major secondary scholarship. A comparative analytical lens is used to explore al-Kindī’s ideas on the soul, cognition, emotion, and ethical self-cultivation and selected themes in modern psychology, without imposing contemporary models onto classical sources. The study highlights al-Kindī’s distinctive account of the soul as an immaterial, rational, and immortal substance whose perfection requires intellectual discipline, ethical refinement, and the governance of bodily faculties. His writings provide early formulations of concepts related to cognitive appraisal, emotional regulation, habituation, psychosomatic interaction, and the integration of spiritual and psychological well-being. The paper also examines al-Kindī theories of sleep and dreams, vision, and the imaginative faculty, as well as his influence on later thinkers such as al-Balkhī. By synthesizing these insights, the study demonstrates how al-Kindī’s philosophical psychology contributes to contemporary efforts to articulate an Islamically grounded, holistic framework for understanding human nature, mental health, and psychotherapy.

Reviewing Al-Balkhī's Concept of the Soul and Its Relevance for Developmental Psychology

2025-09-26T09:43:17+08:00

The work of the 9th-century Muslim scholar Abū Zayd al-Balkhī offers a profound historical and theoretical resource for contemporary developmental psychology. He articulated a sophisticated framework on the intricate relationship between the soul and body, centred on the dynamic interplay between the nafs (psyche) and the qalb (heart) to achieve holistic well-being. This study employs a qualitative methodology, integrating narrative review and historical textual analysis, to examine al-Balkhī’s concept of the soul. This paper argues that al-Balkhī’s conceptualization provides a robust framework for understanding spiritual resilience and cognitive agency as central components of human development, offering a valuable complement to modern biopsychosocial models. The analysis reveals that his model offers crucial insights into the cultivation of a virtuous character and provides a mechanism for how individuals can navigate adversity across the lifespan. Consequently, this paper explores the theoretical implications of al-Balkhī's concept of the soul for understanding physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development. Ultimately, this study positions al-Balkhī’s work not merely as a historical artefact but as a vital and relevant paradigm for advancing a more holistic and cross-culturally informed science of human development.

Understanding the Soul: Abu Bakr al-Razi’s Foundational Contributions to Psychology

2025-11-24T23:26:04+08:00

This article examines the foundational contributions of Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya al-Razi (854-925 CE), a 9th-century Persian polymath, to the development of psychological thought, with a focus on his conceptualisation of the soul (nafs) and human behaviours. Unlike later scholars such as Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Abu Bakr al-Razi advanced a holistic framework that integrated physical, mental, and spiritual dimensions of human life. The article employs a conceptual and historical analysis of his writings in medicine, philosophy, and ethics to illuminate the epistemological, ontological, axiological, and teleological (EOAT) foundations of his psychology. Epistemologically, al-Razi emphasised reason, systematic observation, and clinical experience, advocating knowledge grounded in evidence rather than speculative metaphysics. Ontologically, he proposed a layered understanding of the soul, namely rational, animal, and vegetative, highlighting the dynamic interplay between body and psyche. His axiology underscored moral integrity, moderation, and compassion in human interactions, particularly in patient care, while his teleological perspective linked human flourishing with ethical conduct, mental well-being, and societal welfare. Al-Razi pioneered early principles of psychotherapy and psychosomatic medicine, introduced humane medical practices, and articulated a sophisticated model connecting mental and physical health. By revisiting his legacy, this article demonstrates how classical Islamic thought provides a culturally grounded, spiritually informed framework for contemporary psychology, especially in integrating ethical, cognitive, and affective dimensions. The study affirms the enduring relevance of al-Razi’s holistic vision for scholars and practitioners seeking to advance human-centred, ethically guided psychological theory and practice.

Emanation, Intellection, and Virtues: Al-Fārābī’s Conception of the Soul (al-Nafs)

2025-08-11T16:37:27+08:00

What do we really mean by “soul”? Which of its concepts are we invoking in the teaching and learning of psychology - the soul as a psychological construct of the West or as the spiritual essence grounded in the Islamic intellectual tradition? To truly obtain a comprehensive view of the soul, this paper argues that we must turn to the work of classical Muslim scholars. As such, we approached the above questions from al-Fārābī’s thoughts by first considering his life, major works, and contributions. Second, we focus on his ontological, epistemological, and axiological stances, which are central because the way he perceives reality, knowledge, and values informs his view of the soul. We then discuss al-Fārābī’s conception of the soul in terms of its nature, structure, and development. For him, the soul is seen as an immaterial substance that emanates from the First Cause, which is then elevated by intellection, composed of body, soul, and spirit, and perfected through the pursuit of virtue. His classification of five types of soul and their developmental trajectory is also discussed. Rather than retrofitting the works and thoughts of Muslim scholars into contemporary psychology, we argue for a framework grounded in the Islamic teachings, tradition, and history. To understand this premise better, we end with a discussion of the parallel between al-Fārābī’s views on the soul and those of recent efforts in Islamic psychology.

Abu ‘Ali Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Ya’qub (Miskawayh): Miskawayh’s Conception of the Soul

2025-09-02T13:02:45+08:00

This paper examines the development of the soul (al-nafs) and the philosophical conception of it through the works of Miskawayh, an Islamic thinker and philosopher. Drawing from the primary ethical treatise, the Tahdhīb al-Akhlāq, the article delineates Miskawayh’s intellectual background and his contributions to the development of the soul. The article attempts to explore the soul from the epistemological, ontological and axiological dimensions, and provide an illustration of Miskawayh’s thoughts interwoven with the Aristotelian and Platonic perspectives. Significant to the development is Miskawayh’s view on the three faculties of the soul, i.e. the nutritive, spirited and rational, and the process of attaining supreme happiness through a perfected soul. The parallels between Miskawayh’s thoughts and contemporary psychology are also highlighted, demonstrating how several notions in his conception of the soul are present in areas such as personality and positive psychology. This article therefore aims to underscore the relevance of Miskawayh’s notion of the soul in contemporary discussions related to the shaping of one’s character, wellbeing, and ethical development.

Ibn Sina’s Classical View of Soul through the Ontological, Epistemological, and Axiological Philosophical Framework, and Its Contemporary Relevance

2025-09-26T09:38:37+08:00

Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Abdullah ibn Sina was one of the great Muslim thinkers and philosophers in the Islamic Golden Era. Narratives of his early life influences that set the stage for his later development and some of his major works are presented. The depiction of soul by Ibn Sina is outlined in comparison to Aristotle, setting the stage for the discussions of his philosophical framework of soul, the ontological, epistemological, and the axiological contexts. Ontologically, the soul is depicted as a form (surah) of the body, claiming the vegetative, animal, and rational faculties. Epistemologically, the soul acquires knowledge through the abstraction process and will experience an ultimate interaction with the Agent or Active Intellect (al-‘aql al- fa’al), ascending from potentiality to actuality. Axiologically, the soul’s value lies in its potential for perfection, ascension towards divine realities via a value-based journey. The contemporary relevance of Ibn Sina’s axiology, ontology, and epistemology framework of the soul to contemporary psychology, particularly offering a distinctive alternative to the dominant paradigms are presented.

Integrating Al-Ghazali’s Insights of Soul to the Study of Human Cognition

2025-09-02T20:17:45+08:00

Al-Ghazali (1058-1111), one of the most influential scholars in Islamic intellectual history, offered profound insights to the understanding of the human soul (nafs) through his integrative approach. This paper explores Al-Ghazali’s intellectual legacy, with a focus on his conception of the soul drawing from his biography and corpus of works such as Ihya' Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences) and Maʿārij al-Quds fī Madārij Maʿrifat al-Nafs (The Ascension of the Holy in the Steps of Knowing the Soul). The discussion traces Al-Ghazali’s philosophical thoughts on the epistemological, ontological and axiological perspectives underpinning his conception of soul. The final section considers the contemporary relevance of Al-Ghazali’s thought to the modern study of human cognition. This paper calls for a renewed engagement with classical Islamic conceptions of human nature to expand the epistemological boundaries of the modern study of mind and behavior.

Ibn Bājjah’s Conception of the Soul and the Reconstruction of Human Psychology

2025-10-23T04:58:09+08:00

This paper offers a comprehensive conceptual exploration of the works of Ibn Bājjah (Avempace, 1085–1138 CE), focusing on his philosophical conception of the soul and its significance for the reconstruction of human psychology. It situates Ibn Bājjah within his intellectual milieu and highlights the breadth of his scholarship across philosophy, medicine, logic, astronomy, and particularly metaphysics and psychology. The goal is to present his model of the soul and self in a clear, systematic way by reading it through epistemological, ontological, axiological, and theological lenses, with attention to how reason (ʿaql), moral action, and remembrance of Allāh relate to human perfection. This conceptual paper is important because Ibn Bājjah remains marginal in contemporary psychological discussions, despite offering a holistic framework that links cognition, ethics, and spirituality rather than treating the mind as value-neutral or purely functional. The paper discusses Ibn Bājjah’s intellectual context, his tripartite theory of the soul (nutritive, animalistic, and rational), the implications of this structure for understanding human behaviour, ethical action, and spiritual refinement. Ibn Bājjah’s analysis of human action as a hierarchical process moving from sensory perception and imagination to desire and rational judgment is highlighted and his contributions contemporary psychology (i.e., positive psychology, social psychology, and cognitive psychology) is articulated. The paper concludes that Ibn Bājjah presents a comprehensive and purpose-driven or teleological view of the study of soul and self (ʿilm al-nafs), where genuine human happiness and fulfilment arise when rational intellect governs desire, allowing the soul to reach intellectual excellence and the ultimate fulfilment lies in knowing and turning toward Allāh.

The Ontology, Epistemology, and Axiology of Fakhr Al-Dīn Al-Rāzī’s Work on Soul and Its Relation to Character Development

2025-09-27T09:52:25+08:00

This paper explores the concept of the soul and its relation to character development (akhlak) based on the works and thoughts of Fakhr al-Dīn Al-Rāzī, a renowned 12th-century Islamic scholar and theologian of the Ashʿarite school. By visiting the literature and Al-Rāzī’s work, especially Kitab al-nafs wa’l-ruh. Al-Rāzī’s understanding of the soul is examined through ontological, epistemological, and axiological lenses. Ontologically, Al-Rāzī presents the soul as a unique, immaterial substance that governs the body, distinct from physical organs yet intimately connected to human behaviour. Epistemologically, his methodology is deeply rooted in the Qur’an and Hadith, yet supported by rational inquiry, scientific observation, and philosophical dialectics. He locates the soul in the heart (qalb), arguing its centrality in perception, belief, and character. Axiologically, Al-Rāzī views the soul as inherently inclined toward moral perfection, with moral character functioning as the manifestation of the soul’s ethical disposition. Moral excellence, he argues, is not innate but can be cultivated through knowledge, discipline, and spiritual exercise- reflecting his positive outlook on the soul. Al-Rāzī’s tripartite model of the soul—vegetative, animal, and rational faculties—forms a framework through which ethical character development is possible. Ultimately, the paper argues that Al-Rāzī’s theory of the soul integrates metaphysics, psychology, and ethics, offering a holistic view of human nature that is still relevant today. This paper discusses the application of Al-Rāzī’s work to organisational and individual moral development through a psychological lens and suggests considering religious, spiritual, and moral aspects when approaching psychological issues.

Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: Conception of the Soul and Its Relevance to Contemporary Psychology

2025-10-10T09:11:58+08:00

This article explores the intellectual legacy and philosophical contributions of Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah (1292-1350AD) through the drawing on his major theological, jurisprudential and spiritual writings. Ibn Qayyim's concept of the soul is rooted in the Qur’anic revelation and the prophetic traditions, encompasses ontological, epistemological, axiological and theological dimensions. His three-heart typology, cognitive-behavioural model and spiritual taxonomy constitute a distinct and comprehensive psychology, rooted in divine destiny, ethical accountability and the primacy of the heart. This paper critically analyses the structure, development and stages of the soul as conceptualised in his key works, in particular Kitab al-Ruh, al-Da’ wal-Dawa’ and Miftaḥ Dar al-Sa’adah wa-Manshur Wilayat al-‘Ilm wal-Iradah, and relates these models to contemporary subfields of psychology, including social psychology, cognitive psychology and clinical psychology. Rather than retrofitting his ideas into Western paradigms, this study positions Ibn Qayyim’s thinking as a spiritually grounded framework with transformative potential for moral reasoning, mental health, emotional regulation and well-being. His work invites us to rethink psychology through a Tawhidic epistemology that prioritises revelation, spiritual intentionality and the interdependence of heart, mind and behaviour.